计数能力Numeracy，能够数数和运算的能力，对于经济现代化非常重要。Cappelli & Baten (2021, JDE) 利用43个非洲国家1730-1970的人口普查数据，建构了一个国家层面的关于计数能力的指数，基于一个假设：某个年龄段内以0和5为结尾的人数应该占1/5，例如23-32岁的人群中，25岁和30岁的人数总和应该占1/5，如果偏离越多，则这个国家计数能力越差。作者对这个指数进行分析，发现与殖民经历呈正相关，尤其是英国殖民的效应更强。

Gabriele Cappelli, Joerg Baten, Numeracy development in Africa: New evidence from a long-term perspective (1730–1970), Journal of Development Economics, Volume 150, 2021, 102630, ISSN 0304-3878, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2021.102630. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304387821000079) Abstract: Historical evidence of numeracy on the African continent since the 18th century is presented for the first time based on a panel dataset of 43 African countries covering the periods before, during and after colonialism (1730–1970). Estimates of numeracy draw on the age-heaping methodology: we carefully discuss the potential biases and sources of measurement error concerning the use of this index for long-term analyses. These new estimates enable us to gain a better understanding of long-term African development. We find that the evolution of numeracy over time correlates with differences in colonial education systems, even when controlling for other variables. Keywords: Human capital; Africa; Colonial education systems; Numeracy; History